Definition and Examples of Language Planning

The term language planning refers to measures taken by official agencies to influence the use of one or more languages in a particular speech community. American linguist Joshua Fishman has defined language planning as the authoritative allocation of resources to the attainment of language status and corpus goals, whether in connection with new functions that are aspired to or in connection with old functions that need to be discharged more adequately (1987). Four major types of language planning are status planning (about the social standing of a language), corpus planning (the structure of a language), language-in-education planning (learning), and prestige planning (image). Language planning may occur at the macro-level (the state) or the micro-level (the community). See Examples and Observations below. CodificationEnglish-Only MovementLanguage AcquisitionLanguage ChangeLanguage DeathLanguage StandardizationLanguage VarietyLinguicismLinguistic EcologyLinguistic ImperialismSociolinguistics Examples and Observations Language planning and policy arise out of sociopolitical situations where, for example, speakers of various languages compete for resources or where a particular linguistic minority is denied access to basic rights. One example is the U.S. Court Interpreters Act of 1978, which provides an interpreter to any victim, witness, or a defendant whose native language is not English. Another is the Voting Rights Act of 1975, which provides for bilingual ballots in areas where more than 5 percent of the population speak a language other than English...The French AcademyThe classical example of language planning in the context of state-into-nationality processes is that of the French Academy. Founded in 1635--i.e., at a time well in advance of the major impact of industrialization and urbanization--the Academy, nevertheless, came after the political frontiers of France had long since approximated their current limits. Nevertheless, sociocultural integration was still far from attained at that time, as witnessed by the facts that in 1644 the ladies of Marseilles Society were unable to communicate with Mlle. de Scudà ©ry in French; that in 1660 Racine had to use Spanish and Italian to make himself understood in Uzà ¨s; and that even as late as 1789 half of the population of the South did not understand French.Contemporary Language PlanningA good deal of language planning after the Second World War was undertaken by emerging nations that arose out of the end of colonial empires. These nations faced decisions as to what language(s) to designate as an official for use in the political and social arena. Such language planning was often closely aligned with the desire of new nations to symbolize their newfound identity by giving official status to the indigenous language(s) (Kaplan, 1990, p. 4). Today, however, language planning has a somewhat different function. A global economy, growing poverty in some nations of the world, and wars with their resulting refugee population h ave resulted in great linguistic diversity in many countries. Thus, language planning issues today often revolve around attempts to balance the language diversity that exists within a nations borders caused by immigration rather than by colonization.Language Planning and Linguistic ImperialismBritish policies in Africa and Asia have aimed at strengthening English rather than promoting multilingualism, which is the social reality. Underlying British ELT has been key tenets--monolingualism, the native speaker as the ideal teacher, the earlier the better etc.--which [are] fundamentally false. They underpin linguistic imperialism. Sources Kristin Denham and Anne Lobeck,  Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction. Wadsworth, 2010 Joshua A. Fishman, The Impact of Nationalism on Language Planning, 1971. Rpt. in  Language in Sociocultural Change: Essays by Joshua A. Fishman. Stanford University Press, 1972 Sandra Lee McKay,  Agendas For Second Language Literacy. Cambridge University Press, 1993 Robert Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism Alive and Kicking.  The Guardian, March 13, 2012

Invictus - Path Goal Theory Essay - 2451 Words

â€Å"Invictus† – Individual paper â€Å"Invictus†, is a powerful movie representing what Nelson Mandela taking the office as the first black president of South Africa and set to accomplish great things. Nelson Mandela was the founder and lead of the African National Congress and spent 27 years in prison on charges for sabotage against the white military and government to end apartheid. The movie starts with his release from prison on February 11, 1990 greeted by the black population eager to fight while the white population was expecting the worse from it. The environment factors changed dramatically for Nelson and he found himself ready to forgive those that imprisoned him and call them comrades. His amazing†¦show more content†¦Mandela shows support and consideration to the chief’s feelings and takes the time to explain why he made the decision. â€Å"Reconciliation starts here†¦ Forgiveness starts here, too. Forgiveness liberates the soul. It removes fear. This is why it’s such a powerful weapon. Please Jason, try.† The president appeals at the very inner soul of the security chief. To help people reaching to the same goal Mandela saw a rare opportunity in the rugby team. He knew that blacks spent years to hate the game and the Springbok, the rugby team, since for them it represented the white supremacy and their boycott hurt them. Mandela himself admits doing just the same while in prison on the Robben Island. This time he thinks about using Springbok to unite people and that the team needs to become winners. With one year until World Rugby Cup 1995 to be played in South Africa, and him just taking office, Mandela doesn’t lose time and invites Francois Pienaar, the Springbok captain, for tea in his office to indirectly letting him know about what achievement is expecting of him: to win the World Rugby Cup in 1995 that would be hosted by South Africa. â€Å"You have a difficult job. Captain of the Springbok...We need to exceed our expectations.† said Mandela. This accomplishment was very challenging since the rugby team’s performance was low but president set up his expectations very high requiring the team to perform accordingly. One important momentShow MoreRelatedThe Characters Of Nelson Mandela And The 1995 South Africa s Rugby Team Captain Francois Pienaar Essay2146 Words   |  9 Pages1.0 Introduction: In the film ‘Invictus’ the characters of President Nelson Mandela and the 1995 South Africa’s rugby team captain Francois Pienaar exhibit excellent example of leadership theory and concept which help viewers to comprehend and take in the lesson of fundamental leadership practices and the results. By traits and behavioural leadership theory we can recognizes the fundamental qualities and practices principally showed by every viable pioneer. These characteristics and practices additionally

Project Management Principles and Strategies

Question: Discuss about the Project Management for Principles and Strategies. Answer: Introduction The Narrabri Airport Master Plan was adopted in 2012-13. In this plan, proposal was passed to completely revamp the whole Narrabri Airport with latest technology and make it fully functional on a permanent basis. The plan also included expansion of the airport in order to accommodate high capacity aircrafts and introduction of new specific area for jet aircrafts (Projects 2016). The overall master plan was divided into several periods and the project was expected to complete in 2030. In this report, the first phase of the master plan project has been discussed. During this phase, a line marking plan was made for the existing parking apron to accommodate a single larger aircraft such as BAe-146, Dash 8 400 or ATR72 or two smaller aircraft such as B350 King Air or Saab 340 (Ryerson and Woodburn 2016). This was in preparation for Virgin Australia ATR72 operations. It was announced on 18 March 2014 that Narrabri Shire Council had been granted $5.9 million under Round 2 of NSW Resources for Regions program towards the cost of the airside aspects of the runway end of safety areas upgrade project (Tonkin 2014). Works were completed in August 2015. Before initiating the initial phase of the project, the following objectives were set: Rehabilitation of runway 18/36 to accommodate unrestricted operations up to and including Fokker F100 or equivalent. Strengthen and widen existing taxiway to align with final design aircraft requirements and current standards. Rehabilitation and expansion of the existing apron to accommodate final design aircraft requirements and current standards (Bejarano et al. 2015). Apron was expected to accommodate 3 x Fokker F100 and 1 Beech 350 (or equivalent) simultaneously. There would be a 240 metre runway extension of 18/36 to the south as part of the rehabilitation of the existing runway. Provision of new General Aviation area providing parking and aircraft access to the new fuel facility and RFS station. Associated pavement markings on all new aircraft movement areas. All new airfield ground lighting including runway, taxiways and apron. Installation of new single sided Precision Approach Path Indicators (PAPI) to assist aircraft on approach and to comply with standards for Jet Regular Public Transport (RPT) operations. Removal of existing aviation fuel facilities and installation of new facility within the general aviation area. The new fuel facility would provide for self service Jet A1 and Avgas bowsers as well as a Jet A1 tanker for pressure and over wing refueling of larger Jet and Turboprop aircraft (Bejarano et al. 2015). Project Stakeholder Analysis In the first phase of the project, a number of stakeholders were involved, who had their own duties in conducting the project successfully (Chevalier 2016). A stakeholder analysis table is given below. Stakeholder (Team or Individual) Role Responsibilities Issues raised by this stakeholder What are the stakeholder's expectations? What is the level of influence of this stakeholder? How much does this stakeholder support the project? How will we engage this stakeholder? Narrabri Shire Council Chairman External Sanction of lands and extra funds He raised a concern regarding the future of the project He expects that the project will help in the development of Narrabri Shire Influential Weakly in favour He can provide extra funds and lands for expansion Airport Authority of Australia Organization Sanction of the Project, Analysis of the need of the project The authority once raised an issue as to whether the project is actually necessary They expect that the project will help them gain more passengers Very Influential Strongly in favour The authority will help in the overall project and the operations Project Sponsor Sponsor Availability of sufficient funds Project sponsor raised a concern regarding the uncertain future of the project The project outcome will help the sponsor to gain significant benefits Influential Strongly in favour They will provide funds when needed Project Manager Manager Management of the whole project No issues raised The project will be completed successfully and in time Very Influential Strongly in favour Strong management and leadership skills Nearby Land Owners External Land disputes Land owners were not interested in letting go of their lands for airport expansion They will either get proper sum for the lands or proper relocation Limited Influence Strongly opposed Their demands should be met in order to stop land disputes Passengers Client More passengers will allow more airline companies to provide service Passengers are not sure whether the flights from the Narrabri Airport cost effective Passengers expect to reach all parts of Australia and other countries from Narrabri Airport in the future Influential Indifferent or undecided More passengers = more flights Local Public Services (Fire, Hospital, Security) External Provide emergency services The vastness of the project will require massive emergency services support They expect the project to be done abiding by all the safety guidelines Limited Influence Weakly opposed They will provide instant services in cases of emergency Employees Team Work as teams for the conduction of the project Rigorous working periods, insufficient allowances They expect personal benefits from their work in the project No Influence Indifferent or undecided The future of the project will depend on the works of the employees Project Management All these targets had to be met within a time span of around 2 years (Tonkin 2014). Hence, suitable management was necessary in order to meet all the targets successfully. In this project, step by step planning was undertaken. The following key events were planned and implemented (in numerical order): Closing of land disputes and acquiring all the necessary lands after analysis and measurements of the required area. Designing the blueprint of the plan. Operation of the expansion parts. Operation of the removal of unwanted structures. Building of infrastructures for new proposed structures. Other proposed building plans. The budget for the initial airport upgrade was $10.5 million and was funded by a $6m grant from NSW governments Resources for Regions contribution to Narrabri Shire Council, $3m from Whitehaven Coal and $1.5m in loan funds. After the steps were taken one after another, the project went on successfully and was finally finished within the specified timeline in 2015. With the step by step implementation, each of the parts of the project was completed successfully. Throughout the implementation phase, a risk analysis process was undertaken in order to identify possible risks and loopholes in the project (Tonkin 2014). This helped the authority to take necessary steps to remove any issues and other problems before it was too late. Moreover, suitable planning led the team to proceed with the next phase of the project successfully. The project manager was instrumental in whole of the project in this phase (2014-15). He analyzed all the tasks, delegated every task to the employees and workers and created a suitable timeline accordingly. He also added some extra time space periodically for risk analysis and other extra works. This enabled the employees to complete all the tasks effectively and successfully (Cast ro and Lohmann 2014). From this planning, the project manager had a number of benefits: Zero Extra Expenses As the timeline was produced according to plan, the project manager did not have to spend extra funds during the course of the project. Future Arrangements Due to successful implementation of the timeline, the project manager was able to analyze the success of the current phase and the requirements of the next phase. Sponsor Bonus Since the project was completed successfully in time, project manager earned some amount of sponsor bonus. The project was conducted successfully according to plan and no deviations from the main objectives were reported. Critical Analysis of Project Outcome From this project, as a manager, a lot of things has been learnt. Firstly, it was learnt that every project has to be carried out within a specified time. However, this needs efficient management and delegation of tasks. Implementation is another important factor. It was learnt that the implementations are to be done in a specific order in order to undertake a project successfully. Another important thing learnt was that risk assessment is always necessary in any project so that no problem is encountered in the future. As a manager, one should be able to show good leadership and management skills. One should be able to take suitable actions and decisions throughout the project. Again, from this project, it has been learnt that one should not proceed with any project that has no future. One should also not avoid his duties and delegate his tasks to someone else. The success of this project has helped to gain all the positives and the meaning of a true leader as a project manager. Conclusion In this report, an overall idea of the project and its details has been documented. The project targets, stakeholder analysis, implementations and benefits have been discussed. According to the Narrabri Airport Master Plan, several projects were set to be undertaken in a number of phases starting from 2014. In the first phase (2015-16), several targets were acquired and a timeline was set. The project manager and the whole management team sub-divided the tasks and revised the timeline for the implementation of each step one by one. Due to very efficient management, the initial phase of the project was completed within the specified timeline successfully. Reference List Adler, N., Fu, X., Oum, T.H. and Yu, C., 2014. Air transport liberalization and airport slot allocation: The case of the Northeast Asian transport market.Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice,62, pp.3-19. Bejarano, M.O., Duarte, J., Larson, D. and Roda, T., 2015, June. Case History: New South Runway Design and Construction at Fort Lauderdale International Airport: Geotechnical and Pavement Considerations. InAirfield and Highway Pavements 2015(pp. 375-385). Burghouwt, G., 2013. Airport capacity expansion strategies in the era of airline multi-hub networks. Castro, R. and Lohmann, G., 2014. Airport branding: Content analysis of vision statements.Research in Transportation Business Management,10, pp.4-14. Chevalier, J.M., 2016. Stakeholder analysis and natural resource management. Graham, A., 2015. The Key Airport Challenges. Kivits, R. and Charles, M.B., 2015. Aviation planning policy in Australia: Identifying frames of reference to support public decision making.Journal of Air Transport Management,47, pp.102-111. Projects, A. (2016). Projects View. [online] Aviation projects. Available at: https://www.aviationprojects.com.au/our-projects-view/narrabri-airport-upgrade-planning-5 [Accessed 5 Aug. 2016]. Ryerson, M.S. and Woodburn, A., 2016. Manage Flight Demand or Build Airport Capacity?.ACCESS Magazine,1(48). Sun, Y. and Schonfeld, P., 2015. Stochastic capacity expansion models for airport facilities.Transportation Research Part B: Methodological,80, pp.1-18. Tonkin, K. (2014). Narrabri Airport Master Plan 2014-2034. 1st ed. [ebook] Aviation Projects Pty Ltd, pp.9-15. Available at: https://www.narrabri.nsw.gov.au/files/uploaded/file/News%20Reel/YNBR02-01%20Narrabri%20Airport%20Master%20Plan%20v1_0%20140619%20with%20annexures%5B1%5D.pdf [Accessed 5 Aug. 2016]. Tu, C.S. and Chang, C.T., 2016. Using binary fuzzy goal programming and linear programming to resolve airport logistics center expansion plan problems.Applied Soft Computing,44, pp.222-237.

Morality And The Human Genome Project MWF 1100 Bibliography Congress

Morality and the Human Genome Project MWF 11:00 Bibliography Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, Mapping Our Genes: Genome Projects: How Big, How Fast?, Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore,1988. Gert, Bernard, Morality and the New Genetics: A Guide for Students and Health Care Providers, Jones and Bartlett: Sudbury, Massachusetts,1996. Lee, Thomas F., The Human Genome Project: Cracking the Genetic Code of Life, Plenum Press: New York, 1991. Murphy, Timothy F., and Lappe, Marc, ed., Justice and the Human Genome Project, University of California Press: Berkeley, 1994. Does the Human Genome Project affect the moral standards of society? Can the information produced by it become a beneficial asset or a moral evil? For example, in a genetic race or class distinction the use of the X chromosome markers can be used for the identification of a persons ethnicity or class (Murphy,34). A seemingly harmless collection of informatio n from the advancement of the Human Genome Project. But, lets assume this information is used to explore ways to deny entry into countries, determine social class, or even who gets preferential treatment. Can the outcome of this information effect the moral standards of a society? The answers to the above and many other questions are relative to the issues facing the Human Genome Project. To better understand these topics a careful dissection of the terminology must be made. Websters Dictionary defines morality as ethics, upright conduct, conduct or attitude judged from the moral standpoint. It also defines a moral as concerned with right and wrong and the distinctions between them. A Genome is "the total of an individuals genetic material," including, "that part of the cell that controls heredity" (Lee,4). Subsequently, "reasearch and technology efforts aimed at mapping and sequencing large portions or entire genomes are called genome projects" (Congress,4). Genome projects are not a single organizations efforts, but instead a group of organizations working in government and private industry through out the world. Furthermore, the controversies surrounding the Human Genome Project can be better explained by the past events leading to the project, the structure of the project, and the moral discussion of the project. The major events of genetic history are important to the Human Genome Project because the structure and most of the project deals with genetics. Genetics is the study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits (Congress,202). The basic beginnings of genetic history lay in the ancient techniques of selective breeding to yield special characteristics in later generations. This was and still is a form of genetic manipulation by "employing appropriate selection for physical and behavioral traits" (Gert,2). Futheralong, the work of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, on garden peas established the quantitative discipline of genetics. Mende l's work explained the inheritance of traits can be stated by factors passed from one generation to the next; a gene. The complete set of genes for an organism is called it's genome (Congress,3). These traits can be explained due to the inheritance of single or multiple genes affected by factors in the environment (3). Mendel also correctly stated that two copies of every factor exists and that one factor of inheritance could be dominate over another (Gert,3).The next major events of genetic history involved DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA, as a part of genes, was discovered to be a double helix that encodes the blueprints for all living things (Congress,3). DNA was found to be packed into chromosomes, of which 23 pairs existed in each cell of the human body. Furthermore, one chromosome of each pair is donated from each parent. DNA was also found to be made of nucleotide chains made of four bases, commonly represented by A, C, T, and G. Any ordered pair of bases makes a sequence. T hese sequences are the instructions that produce molecules, proteins, for cellular structure and biochemical functions. In relation, a marker is any location on a chromosome where inheritance can be identified and tracked (202). Markers can be expressed areas of genes (DNA) or some segment of DNA with no known coding function but an inheritance could be traced (3). It is these markers that are used to do genetic mapping. By the use of genetic mapping isolated areas of DNA